Psychology in the News
Student’s Name
University of Maryland University College
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Coffee and Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired
with a separate stimulus, creating a specific pattern of behavior (Saylor, 2015). This was
demonstrated in the experiment of Pavlov’s dogs, in which dogs learned to salivate to the sound
of a bell after associating the tone with the food that would inevitably follow (Saylor, 2015).
Coffee lovers may be surprised to find that they have been subjected to classical conditioning.
According to the Forbes article, The Funny Psychology of Why We Love the Taste of Coffee
by Alice Walton (2018), coffee drinkers have learned to associate the bitter taste of coffee with
the boost of energy received from the caffeine. According to Walton, the aromatic qualities may
also be related to the perception of flavor. Even more surprising is that coffee enthusiasts tend to
be more sensitive to the bitter taste. A study by Northwestern University looked at the data of
over 400,000 people to compare their sensitivity to caffeine, quinine, and propylthiouracil and
their coffee-drinking habits (Walton, 2018). The results unequivocally showed that “people with
sensitivity to the bitterness of caffeine tended to drink more coffee” (Walton, 2018).
There is evidence that our predisposition to liking coffee is genetic. Research shows there
is a connection between certain variants in the TAS2Rs bitter-receptor gene that is associated
with liking the taste of coffee (Pirastu et al, 2014). The study looked at the genetic makeup of
4,066 people from various countries in Europe and Central Asia and surveyed them on their like
or dislike of coffee (Pirastu et al, 2014). A significant portion of those with the affinity for the
beverage had commonalities within their genes. The researchers found two functional gene
variants, W35S and H212R, were detected on the TAS2R43 gene (Pirastu et al, 2014). Simply
put, a coffee lover’s relationship with the beverage is clearly complex from both a psychological
and biological standpoint.
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Sadness Circuit in the Brain
Located between the brain stem and two cerebral hemispheres is the limbic system. The
limbic system governs memory and emotion through the amygdala, hippocampus, and
hypothalamus (Saylor, 2015). According to Saylor, the amygdala is responsible for our
perception of fear and emotional responses such as pleasure, anxiety, and anger. Furthermore,
the hippocampus is essential for storing long-term memory (Saylor, 2015). Considering the
functions of the amygdala and hippocampus, it seems possible that sadness could be observed
through a circuit between these two brain structures.
According to National Public Radio (NPR), researchers have discovered that sadness
occurs through communication between the amygdala and hippocampus (Hamilton, 2018). The
researchers observed the brains of 21 individuals and concluded that there is a detectable circuit
caused by sadness. Although the study could not confirm that the increase in communication was
the result or cause of mood change, this development shows that changes are undoubtedly taking
place in the brain (Hamilton, 2018).
In a study published in the Frontiers in Neural Circuits, Yang and Wang (2017) found
that “the circuitry of the basolateral amygdala and the hippocampus act synergistically to form
long-term memories” (p. 1). The researchers sought to understand the intricacies of these
structures and their interaction reviewing current studies done primarily with rodents. They
found that the circuitry between the amygdala and hippocampus is involved in many disorders
such as anxiety, depression, and Alzheimer’s.
Saylor (2015) states that Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is an effective tool
used to measure this circuitry. Saylor explains that TMS is a procedure that utilizes magnetic
pulses, which temporarily and safely deactivate a region of the brain. Although the amygdala and
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hippocampus were previously thought to be involved with sadness and other negative emotions,
Yang and Wang’s (2017) study reinforces and expands on this theory.
Meditation Aids Veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may develop from “combat, torture, sexual assault,
imprisonment, abuse, natural disasters, or the death of someone” (Saylor, 2015, Ch 6, Defining
Psychological Disorders, Section 2.7, second paragraph). According to Saylor, those with PTSD
may experience high levels of anxiety, flashbacks, rage, and insomnia. They may also have a
strong aversion to reminders of the event including the anniversary of the ordeal. Saylor reports
that about five million Americans are affected with PTSD, most notably veterans and survivors
of natural disasters and terrorist attacks.
According to the Associated Press (2018) veterans with PTSD have traditionally been
treated using exposure therapy. Exposure therapy is “based on the classical conditioning
principle of extinction, in which people are confronted with a feared stimulus with the goal of
decreasing their negative emotional responses to it” (Wolpe, 1973, p. 83). Considering the
intense nature of exposure therapy, many veterans either quit the program or avoid the
behavioral therapy altogether (Associated Press, 2018). However, the Associated Press reports
that there may be a promising new option on the horizon. According to an experiment sponsored
by the Department of Defense, meditation has proven to be as effective as conventional therapy
methods. The study measured the symptoms of 200 veterans in the San Diego area and assigned
them to different groups, one which included lessons on meditation. Following three months of
therapy sessions, “61 percent of the meditation group improved on a standard PTSD assessment,
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compared to 42 percent of those who got exposure therapy and 32 percent of those who went to
classes” (Associated Press, 2018, paragraph 13).
In the academic article entitled Transcendental Meditation for Veterans with Post-
Traumatic Stress Disorder, researchers studied 29 veterans to evaluate the benefits of meditation
for those with PTSD (Kang et al., 2018). The study concluded that transcendental meditation was
effective and well-received by veterans, as there was a high completion rate and there were
improvements in PTSD symptoms and mindfulness. Meditation may work as a supplement to
exposure therapy, or as a safe alternative for those who do not feel comfortable with traditional
therapy methods.
Authoritative Parenting
According to Saylor (2015) there are four types of parenting styles: authoritarian,
authoritative, permissive, and rejecting-neglecting. Authoritarian parents demand and impose
rules, but generally do not respond to their child’s desires. Permissive parents do not make many
demands, give little punishment, and typically allow their children to make the rules. Rejecting-
neglecting parents are undemanding and unresponsive altogether, failing to provide their children
with the adequate amount of attention. Saylor recommends the authoritative parent because these
parents can balance the roles of disciplinarian and negotiator. In other words, a parent who is
authoritative will make demands, but will also make compromises and listen to his or her child.
Marisa LaScala of Good Housekeeping writes that “authoritative parenting is a little bit
of everything: Parents set rules and boundaries that they enforce with consistency, but nurture
kids so they can meet those standards” (p.1). LaScala (2018) explains that children with
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authoritative parents often have positive relationships with their peers, achieve greater success in
their academics, and appear to be more well-adjusted than those with authoritarian or permissive
parents. Not only does the authoritative arrangement prove beneficial to children, but it is also
easier on the parents. LaScala believes that setting the appropriate expectations based on age and
developmental phase contributes to the overall confidence in a parent-child relationship.
According to the journal article Parenting Style in Family and the Risk of
Psychopathology, “the authoritative parenting style applied by both parents minimalizes the risk
of depression, suicidal tendencies and is also negatively correlated with substance abuse, bulimia
and anorexia nervosa” (Konopka, Rek-Owodziń, Pełka-Wysiecka & Samochowiec, 2018,
Summary, Paragraph 1). This research shows that parenting with excessive control and little
emotional support can lead to depression and substance abuse in children and adolescents.
Konopka, Rek-Owodziń, Pełka-Wysiecka and Samochowiec further show that rejecting-
neglecting parenting, or parenting with little control or emotional support can lead to aggressive
behavior. Thus, they conclude that the authoritative style of parenting, which consists of both
control and expression of emotional warmth was proven to be the most advantageous to children.
Memory in the Digital Age
According to Saylor (2015), memory is the ability to process, store, and retrieve
information over a short or long period of time. The processes involved in long-term memory are
known as encoding, storage, and retrieval (Saylor, 2015). In the modern age, we often substitute
these processes with technology. Data is consistently saved and stored on computers or mobile
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devices, which eliminates the need to manually retrieve this information from memory. Still,
some are committed to storing memories the old-fashioned way.
In an article from The Guardian, Lavelle (2018) describes how “memory athletes”
compete to remember card sequences, dates of events, names, and faces in the shortest amount of
time. Lavelle believes that we may be able to learn techniques on how to retain information from
memory athletes. One of these techniques, according to Lavelle, is known as “the method of
loci,” which relies on associating an image with the item and placing it in an imagined room. As
one walks from one room to the next, he or she can recall the items from the list.
However, Zheng, Zhang, Li, Liu, and Luo (2016) found that memory must also be
exercised and activated regularly, preferably through various retrieval routes. The researchers
found that not only can retrieval practice improve one’s ability to remember, but also that
practicing multiple retrieval routes can lead to greater memory retention. Elaborative encoding,
the self-reference effect, the spacing effect, and overlearning can be used independently or in
conjunction with each other to aid memory retention (Saylor, 2015). However, using two
separate retrieval routes has proven to be more effective for long-term memory than using the
same method twice (Zheng, Zhang, Li, Liu & Luo, 2016). The maintenance and retrieval of
information in the digital age does not have be relegated exclusively to our devices. We hold the
power of memory in our brains.
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References
Associated Press. (2018, November 17). Meditation helps veterans with PTSD, Defense Dept. experiment
finds. NBC News. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/military/meditation-helps-
veterans-ptsd-defense-dept-study-finds-n937311
Hamilton, J. (2018, November 8). Researchers Uncover A Circuit For Sadness In The Human Brain.
NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/health-
shots/2018/11/08/665615440/researchers-uncover-a-circuit-for-sadness-in-the-human-brain
Kang, S. S., Erbes, C. R., Lamberty, G. J., Thuras, P., Sponheim, S. R., Polusny, M. A., … Lim, K. O.
(2018). Transcendental meditation for veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological
Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(6), 675–680. Retrieved from https://doi-
org.ezproxy.umuc.edu/10.1037/tra0000346
Konopka, A., Rek-Owodziń, K., Pełka-Wysiecka, J. & Samochowiec, J. (2018). Parenting style in family
and the risk of psychopathology. Postępy Higieny i Medycyny Doświadczalnej, Vol 72, Pp 924-
931 (2018), 924. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.umuc.edu/10.5604/01.3001.0012.7026
LaScala, M. (2018, November 17). What Is Authoritative Parenting? Experts Say It’s the Best of All
Worlds. Good Housekeeping. Retrieved from
https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/parenting/a24881944/authoritative-parenting/
Lavelle, D. (2018, November 13). How to avoid losing your memory in the digital age. The Guardian.
Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/13/how-to-avoid-losing-your-
memory-in-the-digital-age
Pirastu, N., Kooyman, M., Traglia, M., Robino, A., Willems, S.M., Pistis, G., d’Adamo, P., Amin, N.,
d’Eustacchio, A., Navarini, L., Sala, C., Karssen, L.C., van Dujin, C., Toniolo, D., Gasparini, P.
(2014, March 19). Association analysis of bitter receptor genes in five isolated populations
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identifies a significant correlation between TAS2R43 variants and coffee liking. Plos One, 9(3),
e92065. Retrieved from https://doi-org.ezproxy.umuc.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0092065
The Saylor Foundation. (2015). Introduction to psychology. Revised by LD&S Staff of UMUC in 2016.
Retrieved from http://www.saylor.org/books
Walton, A. (2018, November 15). The Funny Psychology of Why We Love the Taste of Coffee. Forbes.
Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/alicegwalton/2018/11/15/the-strange-psychology-
of-why-we-love-the-taste-of-coffee/#567b4c5178e2
Wolpe J. (1973). The practice of behavior therapy. New York, NY: Pergamon.
Yang, Y. & Wang, J. (2017). From Structure to Behavior in Basolateral Amygdala-Hippocampus
Circuits. Frontiers in Neural Circuits, Vol 11 (2017). Retrieved from https://doi-
org.ezproxy.umuc.edu/10.3389/fncir.2017.00086/full
Zheng, J., Zhang, W., Li, T., Liu, Z. & Luo, L. (2016, September). Practicing more retrieval routes leads
to greater memory retention. Acta Psychologica, Vol 169, 109-118 (2016). Retrieved from
https://doi-org.ezproxy.umuc.edu/10.1016/j.actpsy.2016.05.014
